重要知识点回顾:

  1. 双倍体细胞经过减数分裂后形成4个单倍体细胞
  2. 单倍体细胞对有性繁殖很重要,当他们融合时,双倍体细胞又形成
  3. 减数分裂前会进行DNA的复制,所以每个染色体都由两个姐妹染色单体构成
  4. 减数第一次分裂发生染色体数目减半,交叉互换出现
  5. 遗传多样性产生于三种方式:交叉互换,染色体随机分布以及随机的精卵结合
  6. 染色体不分离现象会导致形成多于或少于正常染色体数目的细胞
  7. 唐氏综合征是有3条21号染色体

3.3.U1 One of diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei.

3.3.U2 The halving of the chromosomes number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes.

细胞分裂分有丝分裂和减数分裂两种,都是精准的分裂过程。有丝分裂产生与亲代细胞一样二倍体细胞类型,可发生于生长,新老细胞替代以及无性繁殖(1.6内容)。减数分裂产生的细胞为单倍体细胞,一般发生于有性繁殖中的配子产生。

Meiosis is a type of cell division in which one cell with a diploid nucleus divides into 4 cells with haploid nuclei.

最开始是染色体的发现,描述和命名,慢慢地开始研究有丝分裂和减数分裂。通过染色对性细胞(germ-line cell)分裂的仔细观察,揭示了受精过程中减数分裂的复杂过程。减数分裂是有性繁殖的生物在生殖腺(gonad),包括睾丸(teste)和卵巢(ovary),植物的花药(anther)和子房(ovary)中发生的生命周期中的一项细胞行为。最后产生4个单倍体细胞,这对受精非常重要,因为受精之后染色体会加倍,性细胞的单倍性可以保证一个物种的稳定存在。

The AIM of meiosis is to create cells with half the number of chromosomes, so that during fertilization, each parent could contribute their own set of genes to the offspring and thereby conserve the number of chromosomes of a species and promote variation.

Ploidy refers to the number of chromosomal sets in the nucleus of a cell.

  • Haploid: one set of chromosomes
  • Diploid: two sets of chromosomes
  • Polyploid: more than two sets of chromosomes

How does meiosis work

3.3.U3 DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids.

3.3.U4 The early stages of meiosis involved pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed condensation.

3.3.S1 Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resulting in the formation of four haploid cells.

减数分裂包含了一次染色体复制,两次核分裂,减数第一次分裂(meiosis I)和减数第二次分裂(meiosis II),减数分裂前的间期,跟有丝分裂一样,在染色体形成染色单体,接著在减一的时候同源染色体配对(homologous chromosomes pair up),减一终末同源染色体分离;在减一和减二之间,并没有多一次间期,所以没有染色体的再次复制行为,姐妹染色单体直到减二才分离。下图示减数分裂过程,方便理解,只画出了一对染色体,像人有23对,其他的染色体行为一致。

减一开始时同源染色体配对(pair up),这时每对染色体称为四分体(bivalent),四分体通过螺旋压缩(condensation)继续变短,变短过程中染色单体有时会断裂,如果正好非姐妹染色单体(non-sister chromotid)同时断裂结合,就会产生交叉状态(chiasma),每对同源染色体间可能同时存在有多个交叉位点,这个过程叫做交叉互换(crossing over)。同源染色体在赤道板排列整齐,纺锤丝(spindle)的形成并连到著丝点上,然后将同源染色体拉向两极。在减一末期,两个细胞分别含有一套染色体,但姐妹染色单体仍然存在。减二的过程类似有丝分裂,姐妹染色单体最终被拉到两极,细胞质分裂,最后形成4个单倍体细胞。

Meiosis consists of two division, where the first one is referred to meiosis I (or reduction division) while the second one, meiosis II can be referred to as mitotic division.

Details of meiosis

3.3.U5 Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random.

3.3.U6 Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the chromosome number .

Prophase I:

  • DNA超螺旋,染色体缩短
  • 核膜降解
  • 同源染色体配对,synapsis出现,可能发生交叉互换
  • 中心粒移向两极

Metaphase I:

  • 同源染色体整齐排在赤道板上配对(Homologous chromosomes pair up)
  • 纺锤丝(spindle microtubule)连接在每对同源染色体上的每条染色体(两个染色单体)的著丝点

Anaphase I:

  • 纺锤丝将每对同源染色体分别拉向不同的极端,到两极的分别有一套染色体(2套DNA)
  • 随著纺锤丝的缩短,染色体得以移动

Telophase I:

  • 核膜重建
  • 细胞核为单倍数
  • 染色体部分不螺旋压缩(uncoil)

Prophase II:

  • 染色体重新螺旋压缩(supercoil)变短
  • 核膜降解
  • 中心粒移向两极

Metaphase II:

  • 染色体整齐排在赤道板上
  • 纺锤丝连到每条染色体(两个染色单体)的著丝点

Anaphase II:

  • 纺锤丝将每条染色体的两个姐妹染色单体拉向不同的极端,到两极的分别有一套DNA分子

Telophase II:

  • 到这个阶段,每个极端的染色体数量与减一比起来只有一半,但个减二开始比起来数量一致
  • 核膜重建
  • 细胞分裂成总共4个细胞

Meiosis and genetic variation

3.3.U6 Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation.

3.3.U7 Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation.

减数分裂形成的4个细胞有可能在基因组成上完全不同,有以下三个原因:

  • 来自父方和母方的各一条长得一样的染色体组成的同源染色体,在四分体时期,他们的非姐妹染色单体交叉互换(crossing over),这样就有可能产生基因的重组。

Crossing over process through which the non-sister chromatids within a homologous pair, exchange genetic material during prophase I.

  • 同源染色体的随机分配(independent assortment/ random orientation),在减一中期,父源和母源的染色体排列在赤道板两边是随机的(所以叫random的 orientation),并且这一对的左右分布和另一对的左右分布是不互相影响的(所以叫independent 的assortment),人的话,随机分配的可能组合数为2的23次方,仅仅这个将会导致很多种可能的配子。

Random orientation refers to the positioning of each chromosome at the metaphase plate during metaphase I.

  • 最后,形成的精子和卵子的结合受精又是随机的,这样也进一步造成后代的遗传多样性。

Errors in meiosis – non-disjunction

3.3.A1 Non-disjunction can cause Down syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities.

3.3.A2 Studies showing age of parents influences chances of non-disjunction.

3.3.A3 Description of methods used to obtain cells for karyotype analysis e.g. chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis and the associated risks.

有丝分裂的异常会导致tumour的发生,对于减数分裂,如果在应该发生染色体分离的时候没有发生分离导致染色体对移向一级,称为non-disjuction,结果是得到的配子中染色体数比正常单倍细胞多或少。前面有提到的唐氏综合征( Down』s syndrome)就是在21号染色体多了一条,该种病患者总共有47条染色体(染色体多一条称trisomy)。唐氏综合征的患者有先天的心脏和眼部缺陷。这种染色体变异的出现跟孕妇怀孕年龄有关,统计发现孕妇年龄越高(40以上),小孩患唐氏综合征的概率会越大。

Downs syndrome is a result of improper separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I, or improper disjunction of sister chromatids during anaphase II.

Non-disjuction可以发生在其他的染色体上,像性染色体,出现XXY(Klinefelter』s syndrome),X(没有Y染色体,Turner』s syndrome)。

染色体异常的检测可以通过chorionic villus sampling 和amniocentesis进行,这两种方式都有可能会造成胎儿流产(miscarriage)的发生,所以在必要的时候才会进行。

上图的non-disjuction是发生在anaphase I,如果发生在anaphase II时会是什么结果?

练习题

Quiz on 3.3 Meiosis?

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Short answer question

1. State three processes occurring in a cell during interphase of the cell cycle but not in mitosis. [3 marks]

2. The following sequence of pictures, made using an electronic imaging technique, shows a cell undergoing division.

  • State the stage of mitosis typified by image II. [1 mark]
  • List two processes that involve mitosis. [2 mark]
  • State the process that results in tumour (cancer) formation or development. [1 mark]
  • Explain, using one example, how non-disjunction in meiosis can lead to changes in chromosome number. [2 marks]

3. The diagram below shows a pair of chromosomes during meiosis in a cell in the human testis. The position of the alleles of some genes is indicated.

  • Deduce with reasons for your answer, whether the chromosomes are autosomes or sex chromosomes. [1 mark]
  • Deduce with reasons for your answer, whether the chromosomes are homologous or non-homologous. [1 mark]
  • State the stage of meiosis of a cell if it contains pairs of chromosomes as shown in the diagram. [1 mark]
  • At the end of meiosis, each of the chromatids shown in the diagram will be in a different haploid cell. The diagrams below represent the chromatids inside the haploid cells. Determine the combinations of alleles that would be present on each chromatid. Use the diagrams to indicate your answer. [2 mark]

Reference:

Clegg, C. Biology for the IB Diploma (2nd ed.). Hodder Education.


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