重要知識點回顧:

  1. 雙倍體細胞經過減數分裂後形成4個單倍體細胞
  2. 單倍體細胞對有性繁殖很重要,當他們融合時,雙倍體細胞又形成
  3. 減數分裂前會進行DNA的複製,所以每個染色體都由兩個姐妹染色單體構成
  4. 減數第一次分裂發生染色體數目減半,交叉互換出現
  5. 遺傳多樣性產生於三種方式:交叉互換,染色體隨機分佈以及隨機的精卵結合
  6. 染色體不分離現象會導致形成多於或少於正常染色體數目的細胞
  7. 唐氏綜合徵是有3條21號染色體

3.3.U1 One of diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei.

3.3.U2 The halving of the chromosomes number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes.

細胞分裂分有絲分裂和減數分裂兩種,都是精準的分裂過程。有絲分裂產生與親代細胞一樣二倍體細胞類型,可發生於生長,新老細胞替代以及無性繁殖(1.6內容)。減數分裂產生的細胞為單倍體細胞,一般發生於有性繁殖中的配子產生。

Meiosis is a type of cell division in which one cell with a diploid nucleus divides into 4 cells with haploid nuclei.

最開始是染色體的發現,描述和命名,慢慢地開始研究有絲分裂和減數分裂。通過染色對性細胞(germ-line cell)分裂的仔細觀察,揭示了受精過程中減數分裂的複雜過程。減數分裂是有性繁殖的生物在生殖腺(gonad),包括睾丸(teste)和卵巢(ovary),植物的花藥(anther)和子房(ovary)中發生的生命週期中的一項細胞行為。最後產生4個單倍體細胞,這對受精非常重要,因為受精之後染色體會加倍,性細胞的單倍性可以保證一個物種的穩定存在。

The AIM of meiosis is to create cells with half the number of chromosomes, so that during fertilization, each parent could contribute their own set of genes to the offspring and thereby conserve the number of chromosomes of a species and promote variation.

Ploidy refers to the number of chromosomal sets in the nucleus of a cell.

  • Haploid: one set of chromosomes
  • Diploid: two sets of chromosomes
  • Polyploid: more than two sets of chromosomes

How does meiosis work

3.3.U3 DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids.

3.3.U4 The early stages of meiosis involved pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed condensation.

3.3.S1 Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resulting in the formation of four haploid cells.

減數分裂包含了一次染色體複製,兩次核分裂,減數第一次分裂(meiosis I)和減數第二次分裂(meiosis II),減數分裂前的間期,跟有絲分裂一樣,在染色體形成染色單體,接著在減一的時候同源染色體配對(homologous chromosomes pair up),減一終末同源染色體分離;在減一和減二之間,並沒有多一次間期,所以沒有染色體的再次複製行為,姐妹染色單體直到減二才分離。下圖示減數分裂過程,方便理解,只畫出了一對染色體,像人有23對,其他的染色體行為一致。

減一開始時同源染色體配對(pair up),這時每對染色體稱為四分體(bivalent),四分體通過螺旋壓縮(condensation)繼續變短,變短過程中染色單體有時會斷裂,如果正好非姐妹染色單體(non-sister chromotid)同時斷裂結合,就會產生交叉狀態(chiasma),每對同源染色體間可能同時存在有多個交叉位點,這個過程叫做交叉互換(crossing over)。同源染色體在赤道板排列整齊,紡錘絲(spindle)的形成並連到著絲點上,然後將同源染色體拉向兩極。在減一末期,兩個細胞分別含有一套染色體,但姐妹染色單體仍然存在。減二的過程類似有絲分裂,姐妹染色單體最終被拉到兩極,細胞質分裂,最後形成4個單倍體細胞。

Meiosis consists of two division, where the first one is referred to meiosis I (or reduction division) while the second one, meiosis II can be referred to as mitotic division.

Details of meiosis

3.3.U5 Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random.

3.3.U6 Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the chromosome number .

Prophase I:

  • DNA超螺旋,染色體縮短
  • 核膜降解
  • 同源染色體配對,synapsis出現,可能發生交叉互換
  • 中心粒移向兩極

Metaphase I:

  • 同源染色體整齊排在赤道板上配對(Homologous chromosomes pair up)
  • 紡錘絲(spindle microtubule)連接在每對同源染色體上的每條染色體(兩個染色單體)的著絲點

Anaphase I:

  • 紡錘絲將每對同源染色體分別拉向不同的極端,到兩極的分別有一套染色體(2套DNA)
  • 隨著紡錘絲的縮短,染色體得以移動

Telophase I:

  • 核膜重建
  • 細胞核為單倍數
  • 染色體部分不螺旋壓縮(uncoil)

Prophase II:

  • 染色體重新螺旋壓縮(supercoil)變短
  • 核膜降解
  • 中心粒移向兩極

Metaphase II:

  • 染色體整齊排在赤道板上
  • 紡錘絲連到每條染色體(兩個染色單體)的著絲點

Anaphase II:

  • 紡錘絲將每條染色體的兩個姐妹染色單體拉向不同的極端,到兩極的分別有一套DNA分子

Telophase II:

  • 到這個階段,每個極端的染色體數量與減一比起來只有一半,但個減二開始比起來數量一致
  • 核膜重建
  • 細胞分裂成總共4個細胞

Meiosis and genetic variation

3.3.U6 Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation.

3.3.U7 Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation.

減數分裂形成的4個細胞有可能在基因組成上完全不同,有以下三個原因:

  • 來自父方和母方的各一條長得一樣的染色體組成的同源染色體,在四分體時期,他們的非姐妹染色單體交叉互換(crossing over),這樣就有可能產生基因的重組。

Crossing over process through which the non-sister chromatids within a homologous pair, exchange genetic material during prophase I.

  • 同源染色體的隨機分配(independent assortment/ random orientation),在減一中期,父源和母源的染色體排列在赤道板兩邊是隨機的(所以叫random的 orientation),並且這一對的左右分佈和另一對的左右分佈是不互相影響的(所以叫independent 的assortment),人的話,隨機分配的可能組合數為2的23次方,僅僅這個將會導致很多種可能的配子。

Random orientation refers to the positioning of each chromosome at the metaphase plate during metaphase I.

  • 最後,形成的精子和卵子的結合受精又是隨機的,這樣也進一步造成後代的遺傳多樣性。

Errors in meiosis – non-disjunction

3.3.A1 Non-disjunction can cause Down syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities.

3.3.A2 Studies showing age of parents influences chances of non-disjunction.

3.3.A3 Description of methods used to obtain cells for karyotype analysis e.g. chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis and the associated risks.

有絲分裂的異常會導致tumour的發生,對於減數分裂,如果在應該發生染色體分離的時候沒有發生分離導致染色體對移向一級,稱為non-disjuction,結果是得到的配子中染色體數比正常單倍細胞多或少。前面有提到的唐氏綜合徵( Down』s syndrome)就是在21號染色體多了一條,該種病患者總共有47條染色體(染色體多一條稱trisomy)。唐氏綜合徵的患者有先天的心臟和眼部缺陷。這種染色體變異的出現跟孕婦懷孕年齡有關,統計發現孕婦年齡越高(40以上),小孩患唐氏綜合徵的概率會越大。

Downs syndrome is a result of improper separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I, or improper disjunction of sister chromatids during anaphase II.

Non-disjuction可以發生在其他的染色體上,像性染色體,出現XXY(Klinefelter』s syndrome),X(沒有Y染色體,Turner』s syndrome)。

染色體異常的檢測可以通過chorionic villus sampling 和amniocentesis進行,這兩種方式都有可能會造成胎兒流產(miscarriage)的發生,所以在必要的時候才會進行。

上圖的non-disjuction是發生在anaphase I,如果發生在anaphase II時會是什麼結果?

練習題

Quiz on 3.3 Meiosis?

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Short answer question

1. State three processes occurring in a cell during interphase of the cell cycle but not in mitosis. [3 marks]

2. The following sequence of pictures, made using an electronic imaging technique, shows a cell undergoing division.

  • State the stage of mitosis typified by image II. [1 mark]
  • List two processes that involve mitosis. [2 mark]
  • State the process that results in tumour (cancer) formation or development. [1 mark]
  • Explain, using one example, how non-disjunction in meiosis can lead to changes in chromosome number. [2 marks]

3. The diagram below shows a pair of chromosomes during meiosis in a cell in the human testis. The position of the alleles of some genes is indicated.

  • Deduce with reasons for your answer, whether the chromosomes are autosomes or sex chromosomes. [1 mark]
  • Deduce with reasons for your answer, whether the chromosomes are homologous or non-homologous. [1 mark]
  • State the stage of meiosis of a cell if it contains pairs of chromosomes as shown in the diagram. [1 mark]
  • At the end of meiosis, each of the chromatids shown in the diagram will be in a different haploid cell. The diagrams below represent the chromatids inside the haploid cells. Determine the combinations of alleles that would be present on each chromatid. Use the diagrams to indicate your answer. [2 mark]

Reference:

Clegg, C. Biology for the IB Diploma (2nd ed.). Hodder Education.


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