前言

針對過往回答中，遇到的提問，總結出需求，整理編寫本文。

因篇幅過長，故拆分為上、下兩篇。

本文為《精神病態者的注意力特性》上篇。

  • 本文預計閱讀時間為15~20分鐘
  • 對於有相關需求的讀者，建議直接收藏，需要時仔細反覆地研讀

這篇文章涉及的論文，直接上手去讀有一定難度。

如果知友覺得理解有困難，這裡可以給大家一個先易後難的閱讀順序作為參考：

推薦閱讀順序為：

  • Kevin Dutton的科普讀物中譯本：《像瘋子一樣思考，像天才一樣行動》
  • Impaired Integration in Psychopathy: A Unified Theory of Psychopathic Dysfunction
  • Joseph.P.Newman及其同事的相關研究
  • Kevin Dutton的科普讀物英文原版：The Good Psychopaths Guide to Success

目錄

第一節：精神病態者的注意力特性

1. 導語

1.1 一個例子：燒烤

1.2 Joseph.P.Newman論文

1.3 Kevin Dutton的著作

第一節：精神病態者的注意力特性

導語

在放上Kevin Dutton和Joseph.P.Newman的文章對應內容前，我先用個比較貼近生活的例子，講一下低功能時期精神病態者、高功能時期精神病態者、神經正常人，這三類人的注意力特性相互之間有什麼不同。

1.1 一個例子：燒烤

打個比方，你跟朋友一起去野外燒烤。燒烤爐應該很多人都用過，鐵絲網下的炭火是不勻的。也就是有的地方炭火旺，烤的快，有的地方炭火弱，烤半天連火腿都烤不熟。

有幾種不同的燒烤方式：

①有的人會直接把要烤的東西，比如，雞翅，抹好油蘸好調料，然後扔在爐子上炭火最旺的地方，然後就扔那不管，自個跑去玩，反正就把東西丟在那裡烤，不再挪位置。

②大多數人採用的做法：串好食物，看看哪裡炭火旺，先把食物放在那裡。然後就先放在那裡不管。烤一會觀察一會，如果炭火弱了，就把食物換個位置，換個更旺的地方烤。

③有時候，一羣小夥伴出門太急，忘記帶木炭了(*/ω＼*)。現在只有打火機，場地上可能有一些零散燃料，怎麼辦呢？這時候有的人會用這種做法：把雞翅、火腿、韭菜……反正想烤的東西全部鋪在鐵絲網上，然後就再也不變動它們的位置（可以翻個兒，但不挪位置）。接下來，在下面點打火機。想烤什麼東西，集中火力，專門用打火機對準那個位置燒，其他位置隨便找臨時的合適的燃料，比如樹枝啊，松針啊充數。過了一會，比如說你覺得雞翅快要熟了，就把雞翅扔一邊，把打火機對準火腿腸。

④木炭也是會消耗的。有時候我們會把木炭撥動一下，加一下炭，然後繼續烤。在加炭、撥動之後，炭火強弱的分佈一般就發生了變更，前後的「熱力圖」是不一樣的。有的人可能懶，只想著變動食物位置，不變動燃料位置。有的人可能勤快，經常加炭。有的人可能在邊上扇風，這樣也會影響炭火強弱。

接下來是解說的時間——

鐵絲網上要烤的食物，相當於人當前需要處理的事務（好吧，諧音純屬巧合），鐵絲網下的有火的地方，相當於人的注意力範圍（attention domain），火力最旺的地方，相當於人的注意力焦點（focus）。是否移動食物，相當於人的注意力究竟是固定地集中於一個點，還是在不斷轉移。火力變動（加燃料 / 撥動燃料 / 移動打火機位置），相當於人的認知變更。加炭，有時候可以理解為強化認知（比如請喝茶），有時候可以理解為獎勵激勵（比如漲工資），強化情緒（比如打雞血），如果是普通人，三個都需要；如果是精神病態傾向的人，可能就不怎麼需要強化情緒，多此一舉。

  • 第一個例子，對應低功能期精神病態傾曏者（ low-functioning psychopathic individual)
  • 的注意力模式，
  • 第二個例子，對應普通人（神經正常人，Neurotypical）的注意力模式
  • 第三個例子，對應高功能期精神病態傾曏者（high-functioning psychopathic individual）的注意力模式
  • 第四個例子，對應人的認知變化的基本規律。這些變化是隨著環境變更（對應在邊上扇風），主觀認知變化（撥弄燃料位置或者添加燃料）（註：對於低功能期的精神病態者，第四點還有很多特性，這點我會在末尾提到）

1.2 Joseph.P.Newman論文

這裡放一篇非常重要的論文：

Impaired Integration in Psychopathy: A Unified Theory of Psychopathic Dysfunction[1]

為什麼說這一篇論文重要？

這篇論文是一篇對精神病態學領域，情緒、注意力、交叉模型的各種經典理論的提綱挈領。以這篇論文為起點瞭解精神病態學相關內容，是個很不錯的選擇。

這裡我搬運兩段對於一般人來說比較易於理解的段落。段落中提及的論文，我在引用後面用[1]~[n]的標註中，附上可供下載論文的鏈接。

Attention-Based Models of Psychopathy

While emotion-focused models of psychopathy attribute psychopathic traits to a fundamental deficit in affective systems, attention-focused models argue that the syndrome reflects broader information processing deficiencies that are not specific to affective information. Perhaps the most delineated attention-based model of psychopathy is the response modulation hypothesis (RMH; Gorenstein & Newman, 1980; Newman, Schmitt, & Voss, 1997; Patterson & Newman, 1993). Response modulation, or 「the temporary suspension of a dominant response set and a brief concurrent shift of attention from the organization and implementation of goal-directed responding to [stimulus] evaluation」 (Newman & Lorenz, 2003, p. 905), involves shifting attention from a dominant response set (i.e., primary focus of attention) to accommodate unanticipated nondominant cues. Deficient response modulation limits a person』s ability to use contextual information that contraindicates goal-related behavior because this information is not integrated with the current attentional focus (MacCoon et al., 2004; Newman, 1998). Beyond affective and inhibitory cues that might contraindicate behavior, the response modulation model holds that the processing of future consequences and other peripheral or delayed considerations 「could be disrupted or 『eclipsed』 by the presence of more immediate, prominent, motivationally significant cues」 (Newman, Gorenstein, & Kelsey, 1983, p. 147).

論文鏈接：

[1] Hamilton, Rachel & Newman, Joseph & Racer, Kristina. (2015). Impaired Integration in Psychopathy: A Unified Theory of Psychopathic Dysfunction. Psychological Review. 122. 770-791. 10.1037/a0039703.

[2] Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathology: A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review, 87, 301–315.

[3] Newman, J. P., Schmitt, W. A., & Voss, W. D. (1997). The impact of motivationally neutral cues on psychopathic individuals: Assessing the generality of the response modulation hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 563–575.

[4] Patterson, C. M., & Newman, J. P. (1993). Reflectivity and learning from aversive events: Toward a psychological mechanism for the syndromes of disinhibition. Psychological Review, 100, 716–736.

[5] Newman, Joseph & R. Lorenz, Amanda. (2003). Response modulation and emotion processing: Implications for psychopathy and other dysregulatory psychopathology. Handbook of Affective Sciences.

[6] MacCoon, D. G., Wallace, J. F., & Newman, J. P. (2004). Self-regulation: The context-appropriate allocation of attentional capacity to dominant and non-dominant cues. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 422–446). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

[7] Newman, Joseph & E. Gorenstein, Ethan & Kelsey, John. (1983). Failure to delay gratification following septal lesions in rats: Implications for an animal model of disinhibitory psychopathology. Personality and Individual Differences. 4. 147-156. 10.1016/0191-8869(83)90014-4.

說明：

[5]的Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications是一本書，Newman他們那段是書中的一個章節。一般單獨拿出來參考參考就可以了，不需要把整本書讀完。

The other dominant conceptualization of the psychopathic syndrome centers on more general information processing deficits. Specifically, this perspective views psychopathy as a disorder of attention and suggests that psychopathic traits are not derived from a fundamental emotion deficit; rather, they are manifestations of a broader cognitive deficit. There are two lines of evidence that support this perspective. First, psychopathic dysregulation is not specific to affective stimuli (Newman, Schmitt, & Voss, 1997). Indeed, psychopathic individuals fail to process neutral contextual information if this information is outside their attentional focus (see Baskin-Sommers, Wolf, Buckholtz, Warren, & Newman, 2012; Hiatt & Newman, 2006; Hiatt, Schmitt, & Newman, 2004; Zeier, Maxwell, & Newman, 2009). Gorenstein and Newman (1980) proposed that when psychopathic individuals are engaged in goal-directed behavior, they are unable to shift their attention from their current focus to accommodate information that is not directly relevant to the goal. This impairment hampers psycho- pathic individuals』 ability to consider alternative, adaptive responses to situations and effectively regulate their behavior (MacCoon, Wallace, & Newman, 2004).

Second, psychopathic individuals show normal affective reactions when told to focus attention directly on threat-relevant cues. Whereas deficits in passive avoidance learning, electrodermal responses to threat cues, and fear-potentiated startle are commonly cited in support of emotion-deficit models, these well-replicated emotion deficits have been found to disappear under experimental conditions that establish emotion stimuli as the primary focus of attention (Arnett, Smith, & Newman, 1997; Baskin-Sommers, Curtin, & Newman, 2011; Newman, Curtin, Bertsch, & Baskin- Sommers, 2010; Newman & Kosson, 1986). It is only when these cues are peripheral to a preestablished focus of attention that psychopathic individuals show deficits (e.g., Baskin-Sommers et al., 2011; Larson et al., 2013).

[1] Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Curtin, J. J., & Newman, J. P. (2013). Emotion- modulated startle in psychopathy: Clarifying familiar effects. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 458 – 468.

[2] Hiatt, K. D., & Newman, J. P. (2006). Understanding psychopathy: The cognitive side. In C. J. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 334–352). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

[3] Hiatt, K. D., Schmitt, W. A., & Newman, J. P. (2004). Stroop tasks reveal abnormal selective attention among psychopathic offenders. Neuropsy- chology, 18, 50–59.

[4] Zeier, J. D., Maxwell, J. S., & Newman, J. P. (2009). Attention moderates the processing of inhibitory information in primary psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 554–563.[5] Arnett, P. A., Smith, S. S., & Newman, J. P. (1997). Approach and avoidance motivation in incarcerated psychopathic individuals during passive avoidance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1413–1428.

[6] Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Curtin, J. J., & Newman, J. P. (2013). Emotion- modulated startle in psychopathy: Clarifying familiar effects. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 458 – 468.

[7] Newman, J. P., Curtin, J. J., Bertsch, J. D., & Baskin-Sommers, A. R. (2010). Attention moderates the fearlessness of psychopathic offenders. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 66–70.

[8] Newman, J. P., & Kosson, D. S. (1986). Passive avoidance learning in psychopathic and non-psychopathic offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 252–256.[9] Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Curtin, J. J., & Newman, J. P. (2011). Specifying the attentional selection that moderates the fearlessness of psychopathic offenders. Psychological Science, 22, 226–234. [10] Larson, C. L., Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Stout, D. M., Balderston, N. L., Curtin, J. J., Schultz, D. H., . . . Newman, J. P. (2013). The interplay of attention and emotion: Top-down attention modulates amygdala activation in psychopathy. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 757–770.

1.3 Kevin Dutton的著作

上面Joseph.P.Newman論文中，低功能精神病態者「只知道一種方式」（在中文譯文中，低功能精神病態者的旋鈕是「卡死」在某個位置上）。

針對上文Joseph.P.Newman所述注意力缺陷部分，Kevin Dutton在他的書中提出了不少有趣的觀點。

在這裡，我選取其中討論高功能精神病態者的一本書，The Good Psychopaths Guide to Success（中譯名：《像瘋子一樣思考，像天才一樣行動》)。

這裡僅僅是簡單介紹下相關內容。具體細節，不僅需要對照Dutton的著作，還需要對照他發放的問卷，他人的評論進行理解。如果有條件的話，他做過的相關研究，多方位綜合的理解。另一方面，注意，Kevin Dutton的觀點僅僅是建議，跟Newman在實踐中採用的操縱方式也好、跟實際生活中人們如何把注意力分配到該分配的地方也好，有很多區別。

The Good Psychopaths Guide to Success

Think about it. How many times have you said something like this to yourself? And not just to yourself but to anyone whod listen.

If I cant get on to that course at that university, whats the point?

Its either that job or no job.Shes the only one!Hes the only one!Reducing complex decisions to dualist, black-and-white choices when there is absolutely no reason to do so is something that we humans particularly excel at - and so its little wonder that we get especially hot under the collar when our all-or-nothing efforts come to - nothing.Most of the time, however, unlike Andys mate and the Indian ice-cream wallah, you do have options.Instead of applying to just the one university, you can apply to a bunch of them.Instead of going for just the one job, you can go for several.Instead of hitting on just the one girl/guy - well theres plenty more fish in the sea.By keeping your options ope and strategically spreading your bets, you lower the stakes and turn down the emotional gas rings. When its a zero-sum game and the zero ends up on your side of the net, its hardly surprising youre going to have something to say about it!

——5. Dont put all your eggs in one basket

上篇：完

下篇內容：

厲輕青：精神病態者的注意力特性（下）：極端情境下的選擇——對Kevin Dutton 觀點的補充?

zhuanlan.zhihu.com圖標

根據過去我所遇到的一些相對極端的提問，比如說

「除了……沒有別的辦法了」之類的問題，統一整理之後形成的戰略和戰術總結。

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